Part 1. Geodesy as a Science
Text 2. Alexander Ross Clarke. 7
Text 3. Methods of Geodesy. 8
Text 4. Introduction of Triangulation. 10
Text 5. The Main Geodetic Concepts…………………………………11
Text 6. Geodetic Observing Instruments……………………………. 12
Text 7. From the History of Geodetic Tools………………………….15
Part 2. Mapping and Surveying
Text 1. Cartography in the Ancient World and Middle Ages……….21
Text 2. Cartography in the Age of Discovery and Exploration…….23
Text 3. Cartography of the 18 th Century………………………………23
Text 4. Modern Cartography……………………………………………24
Text 5. Essentials of Mapmaking………………………………………25
Text 7. Topographic Maps…………………………………………..…33
Text 10. Functions of the Surveyor……………………………………43
Vocabulary. 47
Part 1. Geodesy as a Science
Text 1
1. Match the English equivalents with Russian ones:
1) three-dimensional space
2) representation of the Earth
3) gravitational field
5) geodetic network
6) horizontal plane
9) engineering surveying
13) temporal variations
15) cadastral survey
b) гравитационное поле
c) межевая (кадастровая) съемка
e) трехмерное пространство
f) горизонтальная съемка местности
g) изображение Земли
h) геодезическая сеть
i) горизонтальная плоскость
j) земные приливы и отливы
k) инженерные изыскания
l) изменение во времени
n) движение земной коры
2. Read and translate the text:
Geodesy
Geodesy, also called geodetics, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, its gravitational field and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, earth tides, and crustal motion) in three-dimensional time space.
Geodesy is primarily concerned with positioning and the gravity field and geometrical aspects of their temporal variations, although it can also include the study of the Earth’s magnetic field.
Geodesy may be divided into the areas of global geodesy, national geodetic surveys, and plane surveying. Global geodesy is responsible for the determination of the figure of the Earth and of the external gravity field. A geodetic survey establishes the fundamentals for the determination of the surface and gravity field of a country. This is realized by coordinates and gravity values of a sufficiently large number of control points, arranged in geodetic and gravimetric networks. In this fundamental work, curvature and the gravity field of the earth must be considered. In plane surveying (topographic surveying, cadastral surveying, engineering surveying) the details of the terrain are obtained. In plane surveying the horizontal plane is generally sufficient.
There is close cooperation between global geodesy, geodetic surveying and plane surveying. The geodetic survey adopts the parameters determined by measurements of the earth, and its own results are available to those who measure the earth. The plane surveys, in turn, are generally tied to the control points of the geodetic surveys and serve then particularly in the development of national map series and in the formation of real estate cadastres. Measurement and evaluation methods are largely identical in global geodesy and national geodetic surveys. Particularly space methods (satellite geodesy) enter more and more into regional and even local surveys. This also implies more detailed gravity field determination on regional and local scale.
3.Answer the following questions:
1) What does geodesy deal with?
2) What are the main sections of geodesy?
3) What is global geodesy responsible for?
4) What science establishes the fundamentals for the determination of the surface and gravity field of a country? How is it realized?
5) What are the main subdivisions of plane surveying?
6) Are there close cooperation between global geodesy, geodetic surveying and plane surveying? Why?
Text 2
1. Read and translate the text:
Alexander Ross Clarke
A.R.Clarke (1828 – 1914) was an English geodesist whose calculations of the size and shape of the Earth were the first to approximate accepted modern values with respect to both polar flattening and equatorial radius. The figures from his second determination (1866) became a standard reference for U.S. geodesy, even after the acceptance of other figures by the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics in 1924.
Appointed to the Royal Engineers (1847), Clarke remained with the British ordnance survey at Southampton from 1850 to 1881. He was responsible for the principal triangulation (long-distance trigonometric surveying) of the British Isles and published the results of the first geodetic survey of Great Britain in 1861. Entrusted with comparing the standards of length for measuring an international arc of triangulation from Ireland to Russia, he published his results in 1866. His Geodesy (1880) has remained one of the best textbooks on the subject.
2. Find information about other Russian and foreign geodesists. Get ready to tell this information in the classroom. Use in your speech different general formulas such as:
Text 1
не представлять собой ничего нового
Introduction
What is geodesy? Who needs it and why? These are some of the questions asked by many people. Actually, geodesy is nothing new having been around for centuries. Webster defines geodesy as «that branch of applied mathematics which determines by observation and measurement the exact positions of points and the figures and areas of large portions of the earth’s surface, the shape and size of the earth, and the variations of terrestrial gravity.» It is a specialized application of several familiar facets of basic mathematical and physical concepts. In practice, geodesy uses the principles of mathematics, astronomy and physics, and applies them within the capabilities of modern engineering and technology. A thorough study of the science of geodesy is not a simple undertaking. However, it is possible to gain an understanding of the historical development, a general knowledge of the methods and techniques of the science, and the way geodesy is being used to solve some problems.
In the past, geodesy was largely involved with the practical aspect of the determination of exact positions of points on the earth’s surface for mapping or artillery control purposes while the determination of the precise size and shape of the earth was a purely scientific role. However, modern requirements for distance and direction call for both the practical and scientific applications of the science to provide the answers to problems in such fields as satellite tracking, global navigation and defensive missile operations.
Text 2
be limited to … immediate vicinity range from … to … believe strongly in shape
сводиться к …, ограничиваться ч-н непосредственная близость различаться/изменяться от … до … быть твердо убежденным по форме
be widely supported
иметь широкое распространенние
a conservative approximation
Chapter 1 History of Geodesy
Man has been concerned about the earth on which he lives for many centuries. During very early times this concern was limited, naturally, to the immediate vicinity of his home; later it expanded to the distance of markets or exchange places; and finally, with the development of means of transportation man became interested in his whole world. Much of this early «world interest» was evidenced by speculation concerning the size, shape, and composition of the earth.
The early Greeks, in their speculation and theorizing, ranged from the flat disc advocated by Homer to Pythagoras’ spherical figure – an idea supported one hundred years later by Aristotle. Pythagoras was a mathematician and to him the most perfect figure was a sphere. He reasoned that the gods would create a perfect figure and therefore the earth was created to be spherical in shape. Anaximenes, an early Greek scientist, believed strongly that the earth was rectangular in shape.
Since the spherical shape was the most widely supported during the Greek Era, efforts to determine its size followed. Plato determined the circumference of the earth to be 40,000 miles while Archimedes estimated 30,000 miles. Plato’s figure was a guess and Archimedes’ a more conservative approximation. Meanwhile, in Egypt, a Greek scholar and philosopher, Eratosthenes, set out to make more explicit measurements.
He had observed that on the day of the summer solstice, the midday sun shone to the bottom of a well in the town of Aswan. At the same time, he observed the sun was not directly overhead at Alexandria; instead, it cast a shadow with the vertical equal to 1/50th of a circle (7° 12′). To these observations, Eratosthenes applied certain «known» facts (1) that on the day of the summer solstice, the midday sun was directly over the line of the summer Tropic Zone (Tropic of Cancer)
– Aswan was therefore concluded to be on this line; (2) the linear distance between Alexandria and Aswan was 500 miles; (3) Alexandria and Aswan lay on a direct north-south line.
Перевод текста what is geodesy
Geodesy — (pronEng|dʒiːˈɒdɪsi [OED] ), also called geodetics, a branch of earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three dimensional time varying… … Wikipedia
geodesy — 1560s, surveying, from Mod.L. geodaesia, from Gk. geodaisia division of the earth; ultimately from ge earth + stem of daiein divide … Etymology dictionary
geodesy — ► NOUN ▪ the branch of mathematics concerned with the shape and area of the earth or large portions of it. DERIVATIVES geodesist noun. ORIGIN Greek ge daisia, from g earth + daiein to divide … English terms dictionary
geodesy — geodesist, n. /jee od euh see/, n. the branch of applied mathematics that deals with the measurement of the shape and area of large tracts of country, the exact position of geographical points, and the curvature, shape, and dimensions of the… … Universalium
geodesy — n. mathematical study of the earth, its shape, measurements, etc., and the position and area of points and parts of its surface. ♦ geodete, geodesist, n. student of geodesy. ♦ geodetic, ♦ geodesic, a. making allowance for earth s… … Dictionary of difficult words
geodesy — geodezija statusas Aprobuotas sritis geodezija apibrėžtis Mokslo ir gamybinės veiklos sritis, apimanti visos Žemės ar jos dalies formos bei dydžio tikslinimą, gravitacinio lauko bei erdvinės taškų padėties Žemės paviršiuje (virš ar žemiau šio… … Lithuanian dictionary (lietuvių žodynas)
geodesy — geodezija statusas T sritis ekologija ir aplinkotyra apibrėžtis Mokslas, tiriantis išorinį gravitacijos lauką, Žemės formą ir su jos tyrimu susijusius matavimus bei jų taikymą inžineriniams uždaviniams spręsti, kitų Saulės sistemos kūnų… … Ekologijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas
geodesy — noun Etymology: Greek geōdaisia, from geō ge + daiesthai to divide more at tide Date: 1853 a branch of applied mathematics concerned with the determination of the size and shape of the earth and the exact positions of points on its surface and… … New Collegiate Dictionary
Geodesy — Die Höhere Geodäsie ist jener grundlegende Teil der Geodäsie, der sich mit der großräumigen Erdfigur (Form der Erde, Geoid, Rotation) und dem Erdschwerefeld befasst. Der Begriff wurde von Friedrich Robert Helmert geprägt. Die zugehörigen… … Deutsch Wikipedia